Heads of State of Germany
Holy Roman Empire
King in Germany
Francis II
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 12 1768; d. March 2 1835.
House of Habsburg-Lorraine – Lorraine
1792 – 1806
German Reich
The German Reich (Deutches Reich) was the formal name of the German state from its proclamation in the Palace of Versailles on January 18 1871 until the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 at the end of World War II. In practice, however, it makes sense to divide the political history of Germany during this period into three distinct periods: the German Empire (1871 – 1918), the Weimar Republic (1919 – 1933/34), and Nazi Germany (1933/34 – 1945).
The German Empire was formed from the unification of most of the German states into a single empire under the rule of Wilhelm I, King of Prussia. In his capacity as head of this new state Wilhelm assumed the title of German Emperor. This title was chosen deliberately by Wilhelm’s chancellor Otto von Bismarck to reflect the fact that the new empire preserved the federal structure of the North German Confederation, in which individual states retained formal sovereignty (Wilhelm himself remained King of Prussia in addition to his imperial title). This choice of title also avoided antagonizing Austria in the way that a title like “Emperor of Germany” might have done.
German Emperor
Wilhelm I
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 22 1797; d. March 9 1888
Spouse: Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. September 30 1811; d. January 7 1890)
Children: (1) Frederick III, German Emperor, King of Prussia (b. October 18 1831; d. June 15 1888); (2) Princess Louise of Prussia, Grand Duchess of Baden (b. December 3 1838; d. April 23 1923)
House of Hohenzollern
1871 – 1888
Friedrich III
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 18 1831; d. June 15 1888.
House of Hohenzollern
1888
Wilhelm II
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 27 1859; d. June 4 1941.
House of Hohenzollern
1888 – 1918
President of Germany
Friedrich Ebert
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 4 1871; d. February 28 1925.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1919 – 1925
Hans Luther (*acting)
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 10 1879; d. May 11 1962.
Independent
1925
Walter Simons
Date of birth/date of death: b. September 24 1861; d. July 14 1937.
Independent
1925
Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Hindenburg
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 2 1847; d. August 2 1934.
Independent
1925 – 1934
Führer of Germany
Adolf Hitler
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 20 1889; d. April 30 1945
National Socialist German Workers’ Party
1934 – 1945
President of Germany
Großadmiral Karl Dönitz
Date of birth/date of death: b. September 16 1891; d. December 24 1980.
National Socialist German Workers’ Party
1945
Federal Republic of Germany
Federal President of the Federal Republic of Germany
Karl Arnold (*acting)
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 21 1901; d. June 29 1958.
Political offices held: Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia, 1947 – 1956; President of the Bundesrat, 1949 – 1950; Acting President of West Germany, 1949; Member of the Bundestag, 1957 – 1958.
Independent
1949
Theodor Heuss
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 31 1884; d. December 12 1963.
Chancellor: Konrad Adenauer.
Political offices held: Member of the Reichstag, 1925 – 1928; Member of the Reichstag, 1930 – 1933; Member of the Landtag of Württemberg-Baden, 1946 – 1949; Member of the Bundestag, 1949; President of West Germany, 1949 – 1959.
Political party positions held: Leader of the Free Democratic Party, 1948 – 1949; Leader of the Free Democratic Party in the Bundestag, 1949.
Independent
1949 – 1959
Karl Heinrich Lübke
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 14 1894; d. April 6 1972.
Chancellors: Konrad Adenauer, 1959 – 1963; Ludwig Erhard, 1963 – 1966; Kurt Georg Kiesinger, 1966 – 1969.
Political offices held: Member of the Landtag of Prussia, 1932 – 1933; Member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, 1946 – 1954; Member of the Bundestag, 1949 – 1950; Member of the Bundestag, 1953 – 1959; Federal Minister of Food, Agriculture, and Forestry, 1953 – 1959; President of West Germany, 1959 – 1969.
Independent
1959 – 1969
Gustav Walter Heinemann
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 23 1899; d. July 7 1976.
Chancellors: Kurt Georg Kiesinger, 1969; Willy Brandt, 1969 – 1974; Helmut Schmidt, 1974.
Political offices held: Mayor of Essen, 1946 – 1949; Federal Minister of the Interior, 1949 – 1950; Federal Minister of Justice, 1966 – 1969; President of West Germany, 1969 – 1974.
Independent
1969 – 1974
Walter Scheel
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 8 1919; d. August 24 2016.
Chancellor: Helmut Schmidt.
Political offices held: Member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, 1950 – 1954; Member of the Bundestag, 1953 – 1974; Member of the European Parliament, 1956 – 1961; Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation, 1961 – 1966; Vice President of the Bundestag, 1967 – 1969; Federal Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1969 – 1974; Vice Chancellor of West Germany, 1969 – 1974; President of West Germany, 1974 – 1979.
Independent
1974 – 1979
Karl Carstens
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 14 1914; d. May 30 1992.
Chancellors: Helmut Schmidt (1979 – 1982); Helmut Kohl (1982 – 1984).
Political offices held: Member of the Bundestag, 1972 – 1979; President of the Bundestag, 1976 – 1979; President of West Germany, 1979 – 1984.
Political party positions held: Leader of the CDU/CSU Group in the Bundestag, 1973 – 1976.
Independent
1979 – 1984
Richard Karl Freiherr von Weizsäcker
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 15 1920; d. January 31 2015.
Chancellor: Helmut Kohl.
Political offices held: Member of the Bundestag, 1969 – 1981; Member of the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin, 1979; Member of the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin, 1981 – 1984; Governing Mayor of West Berlin, 1981 – 1984; President of West Germany/Germany, 1984 – 1994.
Independent
1984 – 1994
Roman Herzog
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 5 1934; d. January 10 2017.
Chancellors: Helmut Kohl, 1994 – 1998; Gerhard Schröder, 1998 – 1999.
Political offices held: Member of the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg, 1980 – 1983; President of Germany, 1994 – 1999.
Independent
1994 – 1999
Johannes Rau
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 16 1931; d. January 27 2006.
Chancellor: Gerhard Schröder.
Political offices held: Member of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, 1958 – 1999; Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia, 1978 – 1998; President of the Bundesrat, 1982 – 1983; President of the Bundesrat, 1994 – 1995; President of Germany, 1999 – 2004.
Political party positions held: Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, 1998.
Independent
1999 – 2004
Horst Köhler
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 22 1943; d. February 1 2025.
Chancellors: Gerhard Schröder, 2004 – 2005; Angela Merkel, 2005 – 2010.
Political offices held: President of Germany, 2004 – 2010.
Financial positions held: President of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1998 – 2000; Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund, 2000 – 2004.
Independent
2004 – 2010
Jens Böhrnsen (*acting)
Date of birth/date of death: b. June 12 1949.
Chancellor: Angela Merkel.
Political offices held: Member of the Bürgerschaft of Bremen, 1995 – 2005; President of the Senate and Mayor of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, 2005 – 2015; President of the Bundesrat, 2009 – 2010; Acting President of Germany, 2010.
Independent
2010
Christian Wilhelm Walter Wulff
Date of birth/date of death: b. June 19 1959.
Chancellor: Angela Merkel.
Political offices held: Member of the Landtag of Lower Saxony, 1994 – 2010; Minister-President of Lower Saxony, 2003 – 2010; President of Germany, 2010 – 2012.
Political party positions held: Leader of the Christian Democratic Union of Lower Saxony, 1994 – 2008; Deputy Leader of the Christian Democratic Union, 1998 – 2010.
Independent
2010 – 2012
Horst Lorenz Seehofer (*acting)
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 4 1949.
Chancellor: Angela Merkel.
Political offices held: Member of the Bundestag, 1980 – 2008; Federal Minister for Health, 1992 – 1998; Federal Minister for Food, Agriculture, and Consumer Protection, 2005 – 2008; Minister-President of Bavaria, 2008 – 2018; President of the Bundesrat, 2011 – 2012; Acting President of Germany, 2012; Federal Minister for the Interior, Building, and Community, 2018 – 2021.
Political party positions held: Leader of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria, 2008 – 2019.
Independent
2012
Joachim Wilhelm Gauck
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 24 1940.
Chancellor: Angela Merkel.
Political offices held: Member of the Volkskammer, 1990; Member of the Bundestag, 1990; President of Germany, 2012 – 2017.
Independent
2012 – 2017
Frank-Walter Steinmeier
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 5 1956.
Chancellors: Angela Merkel, 2017 – 2021; Olaf Scholz, 2021 – 2025; Friedrich Merz, 2025 – present.
Political offices held: Federal Minister of Foreign Affairs, 2005 – 2009; Vice-Chancellor of Germany, 2007 – 2009; Member of the Bundestag, 2009 – 2017; Federal Minister of Foreign Affairs, 2013 – 2017; President of Germany, 2017 – present.
Political party positions held: Deputy Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, 2007 – 2009; Acting Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, 2008; Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany in the Bundestag, 2009 – 2013.
Independent
2017 – present
Heads of Government of Germany
North German Confederation
Federal Chancellor of the North German Confederation
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, Fürst von Bismarck
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 1 1815; d. July 30 1898.
Independent
1867 – 1871
German Reich
Chancellor of the German Empire
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, Fürst von Bismarck
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 1 1815; d. July 30 1898.
Independent
1871 – 1890
Head of the Council of the People’s Deputies
Friedrich Ebert
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 4 1871; d. February 28 1925.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1918 – 1919
Chancellor of Germany
Gustav Ernst Stresemann
Date of birth/date of death: b. May 10 1878; d. October 3 1929.
German People’s Party
1923
Hans Luther
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 10 1879; d. May 11 1962.
Independent
1925 – 1926
Heinrich Aloysius Maria Elisabeth Brüning
Date of birth/date of death: b. November 26 1885; d. March 30 1970.
German Centre Party
1930 – 1932
Adolf Hitler
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 20 1889; d. April 30 1945
National Socialist German Workers’ Party
1933 – 1945
Paul Joseph Goebbels
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 29 1897; d. May 1 1945.
National Socialist German Workers’ Party
1945
Vice-Chancellor of Germany
Hermann Robert Dietrich
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 14 1879; d. March 6 1954.
German State Party
1930 – 1932
Federal Republic of Germany
Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany
Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 5 1876; d. April 19 1967.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
1949 – 1963
Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 4 1897; d. May 5 1977.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
1963 – 1966
Kurt Georg Kiesinger
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 6 1904; d. March 9 1988.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
1966 – 1969
Willy Brandt
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 18 1913; d. October 8 1992.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1969 – 1974
Helmut Heinrich Waldemar Schmidt
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 23 1918; d. November 10 2015.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1974 – 1982
Helmut Josef Michael Kohl
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 3 1930; d. June 16 2017.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
1982 – 1998
Gerhard Fritz Kurt “Gerd” Schröder
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 7 1944.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1998 – 2005
Angela Dorothea Merkel
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 17 1954.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
2005 – 2021
Olaf Scholz
Date of birth/date of death: b. June 14 1958.
President: Frank-Walter Steinmeier.
Other prominent offices: Member of the Bundestag (1998 – 2001; 2002 – 2011; 2021 – present); General Secretary of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (2002 – 2004); Chief Whip of the Social Democratic Party of Germany in the Bundestag (2005 – 2007); Federal Minister for Labour and Social Affairs (2007 – 2009); Deputy Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany in the Bundestag (2009 – 2011); First Mayor of Hamburg (2011 – 2018); Federal Minister of Finance (2018 – 2021); Vice Chancellor of Germany (2018 – 2021).
Social Democratic Party of Germany
2021 – present
Deputy to the Federal Chancellor
Franz Blücher
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 24 1896; d. March 26 1959.
Free Democratic Party
1949 – 1957
Ludwig Wilhelm Erhard
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 4 1897; d. May 5 1977.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
1957 – 1963
Erich Mende
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 28 1916; d. May 6 1998.
Free Democratic Party
1963 – 1966
Willy Brandt
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 18 1913; d. October 8 1992.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1966 – 1969
Walter Scheel
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 8 1919; d. August 24 2016.
Free Democratic Party
1969 – 1974
Hans-Dietrich Genscher
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 21 1927; d. March 31 2016.
Free Democratic Party
1974 – 1982
Hans-Dietrich Genscher
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 21 1927; d. March 31 2016.
Free Democratic Party
1982 – 1992
Joseph Martin “Joschka” Fischer
Date of birth/date of death: b. April 12 1948.
Alliance 90/The Greens
1998 – 2005
Franz Müntefering
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 16 1940.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
2005 – 2007
Frank-Walter Steinmeier
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 5 1956.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
2007 – 2009
Guido Westerwelle
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 27 1961; d. March 18 2016.
Free Democratic Party
2009 – 2011
Philipp Rösler
Date of birth/date of death: b. February 24 1973.
Free Democratic Party
2011 – 2013
Sigmar Hartmut Gabriel
Date of birth/date of death: b. September 12 1959.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
2013 – 2018
Olaf Scholz
Date of birth/date of death: b. June 14 1958.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
2018 – 2021
Robert Habeck
Date of birth/date of death: b. September 2 1969.
Alliance 90/The Greens
2021 – present
Leader of the Opposition
Curt Ernst Carl “Kurt” Schumacher
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 13 1895; d. August 20 1952.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1949 – 1952
Richard Herbert Wehner
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 11 1906; d. January 19 1990.
Social Democratic Party of Germany
1982 – 1983
Wolfgang Schäuble
Date of birth/date of death: b. September 18 1942; d. December 26 2023.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
1998 – 2000
Joachim-Friedrich Martin Josef Merz
Date of birth/date of death: b. November 11 1955.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
2000 – 2002
Angela Dorothea Merkel
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 17 1954.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
2002 – 2005
Guido Westerwelle
Date of birth/date of death: b. December 27 1961; d. March 18 2016.
Free Democratic Party
2006 – 2009
Gregor Florian Gysi
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 16 1948.
The Left
2013 – 2015
Joachim-Friedrich Martin Josef Merz
Date of birth/date of death: b. November 11 1955.
Christian Democratic Union of Germany
2022 – present
Sub-National Monarchies
Kingdom of Hanover
King of Hanover
George III
Date of birth/date of death: b. June 4 1738; d. January 29 1820
Spouse: Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b. May 19 1744; d. November 17 1818)
Children: (1) George IV, King of the United Kingdom (b. August 12 1762; d. June 26 1830); (2) Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany (b. August 16 1763; d. January 5 1827); (3) William IV, King of the United Kingdom (b. August 21 1765; d. June 20 1837); (4) Charlotte, Princess Royal, Queen consort of Württemberg (b. September 29 1766; d. October 6 1828); (5) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (b. November 2 1767; d. January 23 1820); (6) Princess Augusta Sophia (b. November 8 1768; d. September 22 1840); (7) Princess Elizabeth, Landgravine consort of Hesse-Homburg (b. May 22 1770; d. January 10 1840); (8) Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover (b. June 5 1771; d. November 18 1851); (9) Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex (b. January 27 1773; d. April 21 1843); (10) Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge (b. February 24 1774; d. July 5 1850); (11) Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh (b. April 25 1776; d. April 30 1857); (12) Princess Sophia (b. November 3 1777; d. May 27 1848); (13) Prince Octavius (b. February 23 1779; d. May 3 1783); (14) Prince Alfred (b. September 22 1780; d. August 20 1782); (15) Princess Amelia (b. August 7 1783; d. November 2 1810).
Titles of royalty: Prince of Wales (1751 – 1760); Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1760 – 1814); King of Hanover (1814 – 1820).
Titles of nobility: Duke of Edinburgh (1751 – 1760).
House of Hanover
1814 – 1820
George IV
Date of birth/date of death: b. August 12 1762; d. June 26 1830.
House of Hanover – Welf
1820 – 1830
William IV
Date of birth/date of death: b. August 21 1765; d. June 20 1837.
House of Hanover – Welf
1830 – 1837
Kingdom of Prussia
King of Prussia
Frederick II the Great
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 24 1712; d. August 17 1786.
House of Hohenzollern
1740 – 1786
William I
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 22 1797; d. March 9 1888
Spouse: Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. September 30 1811; d. January 7 1890)
Children: (1) Frederick III, German Emperor, King of Prussia (b. October 18 1831; d. June 15 1888); (2) Princess Louise of Prussia, Grand Duchess of Baden (b. December 3 1838; d. April 23 1923)
House of Hohenzollern
1861 – 1888
Friedrich III
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 18 1831; d. June 15 1888.
House of Hohenzollern
1888
William II
Date of birth/date of death: b. January 27 1859; d. June 4 1941.
House of Hohenzollern
1888 – 1918
Oldenburg
County of Oldenburg
Count of Oldenburg
Paul
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 1 1754; d. March 23 1801.
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov – Oldenburg
1773
Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg
Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg
George III
Date of birth/date of death: b. June 4 1738; d. January 29 1820
Spouse: Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (b. May 19 1744; d. November 17 1818)
Children: (1) George IV, King of the United Kingdom (b. August 12 1762; d. June 26 1830); (2) Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany (b. August 16 1763; d. January 5 1827); (3) William IV, King of the United Kingdom (b. August 21 1765; d. June 20 1837); (4) Charlotte, Princess Royal, Queen consort of Württemberg (b. September 29 1766; d. October 6 1828); (5) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (b. November 2 1767; d. January 23 1820); (6) Princess Augusta Sophia (b. November 8 1768; d. September 22 1840); (7) Princess Elizabeth, Landgravine consort of Hesse-Homburg (b. May 22 1770; d. January 10 1840); (8) Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover (b. June 5 1771; d. November 18 1851); (9) Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex (b. January 27 1773; d. April 21 1843); (10) Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge (b. February 24 1774; d. July 5 1850); (11) Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh (b. April 25 1776; d. April 30 1857); (12) Princess Sophia (b. November 3 1777; d. May 27 1848); (13) Prince Octavius (b. February 23 1779; d. May 3 1783); (14) Prince Alfred (b. September 22 1780; d. August 20 1782); (15) Princess Amelia (b. August 7 1783; d. November 2 1810).
Titles of royalty: Prince of Wales (1751 – 1760); Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1760 – 1814); King of Hanover (1814 – 1820).
Titles of nobility: Duke of Edinburgh (1751 – 1760).
House of Hanover
1760 – 1814
Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp
Duke of Holstein-Gottorp
Paul
Date of birth/date of death: b. October 1 1754; d. March 23 1801.
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov – Oldenburg
1762 – 1773
Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Alfred
Date of birth/date of death: b. August 6 1844; d. July 30 1900
Military ranks (Royal Navy): Promoted to rear-admiral, 1878. Promoted to vice-admiral, 1882. Promoted to admiral, 1887. Promoted to Admiral of the Fleet, 1893.
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
1893 – 1900
Charles Edward
Date of birth/date of death: b. July 19 1884; d. March 6 1954
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
1900 – 1918
Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg
Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg
William I
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 22 1797; d. March 9 1888
Spouse: Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. September 30 1811; d. January 7 1890)
Children: (1) Frederick III, German Emperor, King of Prussia (b. October 18 1831; d. June 15 1888); (2) Princess Louise of Prussia, Grand Duchess of Baden (b. December 3 1838; d. April 23 1923)
House of Hohenzollern
1864 – 1876
Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein
Duke of Schleswig-Holstein
William I
Date of birth/date of death: b. March 22 1797; d. March 9 1888
Spouse: Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (b. September 30 1811; d. January 7 1890)
Children: (1) Frederick III, German Emperor, King of Prussia (b. October 18 1831; d. June 15 1888); (2) Princess Louise of Prussia, Grand Duchess of Baden (b. December 3 1838; d. April 23 1923)
House of Hohenzollern
1864 – 1888